Competing Dimensions of Energy Security: An International Perspective

How well are industrialized nations doing in terms of their energy security? Without a standardized set of metrics, it is difficult to determine the extent that countries are properly responding to the emerging energy security challenges related to climate change, growing dependence on fossil fuels, population growth and economic development. In response, we propose the creation of an Energy Security Index to inform policymakers, investors and analysts about the status of energy conditions. Using the United States and 21 other member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) as an example, and looking at energy security from 1970 to 2007, our index shows that only four countries¡ªBelgium, Denmark, Japan, and the United Kingdom¡ªhave made progress on multiple dimensions of the energy security problem. The remaining 18 have either made no improvement or are less secure. To make this argument, the first section of the article surveys the scholarly literature on energy security from 2003 to 2008 and argues that an index should address accessibility, affordability, efficiency, and environmental stewardship. Because each of these four components is multidimensional, the second section discusses ten metrics that comprise an Energy Security Index: oil import dependence, percentage of alternative transport fuels, on-road fuel economy for passenger vehicles, energy intensity, natural gas import dependence, electricity prices, gasoline prices, sulfur dioxide emissions, and carbon dioxide emissions. The third section analyzes the relative performance of four countries: Denmark (the top performer), Japan (which performed well), the United States (which performed poorly), and Spain (the worst performer). The article concludes by offering implications for policy. Conflicts between energy security criteria mean that advancement along any one dimension can undermine progress on another dimension. By focusing on a 10-point index, public policy can better illuminate such tradeoffs and can identify compensating policies

Assessing U.S. energy policy

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Observation of Buried Phosphorus Dopants near Clean Si(100)-(2x1) with Scanning Tunneling Microscopy

We have used scanning tunneling microscopy to identify individual phosphorus dopant atoms near the clean silicon (100)-(2x1) reconstructed surface. The charge-induced band bending signature associated with the dopants shows up as an enhancement in both filled and empty states and is consistent with the appearance of n-type dopants on compound semiconductor surfaces and passivated Si(100)-(2x1). We observe dopants at different depths and see a strong dependence of the signature on the magnitude of the sample voltage. Our results suggest that, on this clean surface, the antibonding surface state band acts as an extension of the bulk conduction band into the gap. The positively charged dimer vacancies that have been observed previously appear as depressions in the filled states, as opposed to enhancements, because they disrupt these surface bands.Comment: 4 pages, 3 figures. TeX for OSX from Wierde

Mitigating Climate Change Through Green Buildings and Smart Growth

Energy-efficient buildings are seen by climate change experts as one of the least-cost approaches to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. This paper summarizes a study done for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change that takes a broader look at the potential role of a climate-friendly built environment including not only considerations of how buildings are constructed and used, but also how they interface with the electric grid and where they are located in terms of urban densities and access to employment and services. In addition to summarizing mechanisms of change (barriers and drivers), the paper reviews a set of policies that could bring carbon emissions in the building sector in 2025 back almost to 2004 levels. By mid-century, the combination of green buildings and smart growth could deliver the deeper reductions that many believe are needed to mitigate climate change

Theorizing the behavioral dimension of energy consumption: energy efficiency and the value-action gap

This chapter focuses on the well-documented misalignment between energy-related behaviors and the personal values of consumers, which has become a major source of angst among policymakers. Despite widespread pro-environmental or green attitudes, consumers frequently purchase non-green alternatives. The chapter identifies 50 theoretical approaches that can be divided almost equally into two types: those that emphasize beliefs, attitudes, and values; and those that also consider contextual factors and social norms. Three principles of intervention are recommended: provide credible and targeted information at points of decision; identify and address the key factors inhibiting and promoting the target behaviors in particular populations; and rigorously evaluate programs to provide credible estimates of impact and opportunities for improvement. The chapter recommends that research on the value-action gap be expanded beyond the traditional focus on individuals to include decision-making units such as households, boards of directors, commercial buying units, and government procurement groups

Smart-Grid Policies: An International Review

The electric power systems of many industrialized nations are challenged by the need to accommodate distributed renewable generation, increasing demands of a digital society, growing threats to infrastructure security, and concerns over global climate disruption. The “smart grid” – with a two-way flow of electricity and information between utilities and consumers – can help address these challenges, but various financial, regulatory, and technical obstacles hinder its rapid deployment. An overview of experiences with smart-grids policies in pioneering countries shows that many governments have designed interventions to overcome these barriers and to facilitate grid modernization. Smart-grid policies include a new generation of regulations and finance models such as regulatory targets, requirements for data security and privacy, renewable energy credits, and various interconnection tariffs and utility subsidie

Promoting a Level Playing Field for Energy Options: Electricity Alternatives and the Case of the Indian Point Energy Center

The original publication is available at http://www.springerlink.com.The Indian Point Energy Center, with two operational nuclear reactors, sits in a densely populated region just 40 miles north of midtown Manhattan. It is a vital part of the electricity supply system for the New York City region, but its propinquity to the largest city in the United States has raised public concerns about its safe operation, particularly in the event of a terrorist attack. Such concerns prompted the U.S. Congress to request a study of potential options for replacing the 2,000 MW of power provided by Indian Point. This paper assesses the potential for electricity alternatives in the Indian Point service area. It documents that increased investments in energy efficiency, combined heat and power facilities, and solar photovoltaics could cost-competitively reduce peak demand in the Indian Point service area by 1 Gigawatt (GW) or more by 2010 and by 1.5 GW by 2015. If the cost of solar photovoltaics can be brought to near competitive levels over the next decade, these totals could be raised to 1.7 GW by 2015, approaching the capacity of the Indian Point Energy Center. This result challenges the conventional focus of system operators and policymaker on supply-side solutions

Developing an "Energy Sustainability Index" to Evaluate American Energy Policy

The original publication is available at: http://www.maney.co.uk/journals/isrThis paper proposes the creation of an energy sustainability index (ESI) to inform policymakers, investors, and analysts about the status of energy conditions, and to help educate the public about energy issues. The proposed ESI builds on the substantial body of literature on "sustainability" and also draws on past efforts to measure environmental and energy progress – both of which are reviewed below. The index covers four dimensions (oil security, electricity reliability, energy efficiency, and environmental quality) and includes twelve individual indicators. Comparing these indicators in 1970 with 2004, nine have trended in an unfavorable direction, two have moved in a favorable direction, and one has been essentially unchanged. Clearly, the "energy problem" fretted about in the 1970s has not been fully addressed. While the proposed ESI is preliminary and requires further refinement, it takes an important step toward creating a set of indicators that can easily assess and communicate the condition of the U.S. energy system

The continuing evolution of Energy Policy

As the world confronts the Covid-19 pandemic, we hope that all of you are doing well. We know that many lives have been greatly disrupted, and that world economic activity is slowing and maybe declining in some places. We have read reports that energy consumption has been greatly affected by the slowdown in world economic activity—likely contributing to the sharp plunge in oil prices earlier this year. We do not know how long this pandemic may last. As we look forward to the end of the pandemic and a recovering world economy, however, we wonder if and how energy systems may have to be transformed, and whether new energy policy needs and approaches will emerge. Will we see any change in the trajectory of adopting sustainable energy systems and reducing carbon emissions?In the academic world, many of us are now teleworking and teaching our courses online. This transition has proved time consuming—so we want to thank our many reviewers who are staying on or close to schedule. So far, Energy Policy has been mostly unaffected by the pandemic, but we must recognize that the Elsevier employees who are responsible for the operations side of the journal may at some time be affected by Covid-19.In the meantime, we want to keep you informed about some recent developments regarding Energy Policy, including a little about its history and our editorial priorities

Making Buildings Part of the Climate Solution by Enforcing Aggressive Commercial Building Codes

This paper examines the impact of an aggressive commercial building codes policy in the United States. The policy would require both new construction and existing buildings that undergo major modifications to comply with higher building shell efficiency and more stringent equipment standards similar to the latest versions of the ASHRAE 90.1 Standard. Using the Georgia Tech version of the National Energy Modeling System (GT-NEMS), we estimate that the building codes policy could reduce the energy consumption of commercial buildings by 0.94 Quads in 2035, equal to 4% of the projected energy consumption of commercial buildings in that year. In the four targeted end-uses – space heating and cooling, water heating and lighting – estimated energy consumption would be 17%, 15%, 20% and 5% less than the Reference case forecast in 2035, respectively. The reduction of electricity and natural gas prices along with the consumption decline could save commercial consumers $12.8 billion in energy bills in 2035 and a cumulative$110 billion of bill savings between 2012 and 2035. The environmental benefits of the policy could also be significant. In 2035, 47 MMT of CO2 emissions could be avoided, generating cumulative benefits of $17 billion by 2035. The estimated benefit-cost ratio of this policy within the commercial sector is 1.4, with a resulting net benefit of$59 billion. The positive spillover effect of this policy would lead to an even higher economy-wide benefit-cost ratio